Large language models (LLMs) fine-tuned with alignment techniques, such as reinforcement learning from human feedback, have been instrumental in developing some of the most capable AI systems to date. Despite their success, existing methods typically rely on simple binary labels, such as those indicating preferred outputs in pairwise preferences, which fail to capture the subtle differences in relative quality between pairs. To address this limitation, we introduce an approach called Margin Matching Preference Optimization (MMPO), which incorporates relative quality margins into optimization, leading to improved LLM policies and reward models. Specifically, given quality margins in pairwise preferences, we design soft target probabilities based on the Bradley-Terry model, which are then used to train models with the standard cross-entropy objective. Experiments with both human and AI feedback data demonstrate that MMPO consistently outperforms baseline methods, often by a substantial margin, on popular benchmarks including MT-bench and RewardBench. Notably, the 7B model trained with MMPO achieves state-of-the-art performance on RewardBench as of June 2024, outperforming other models of the same scale. Our analysis also shows that MMPO is more robust to overfitting, leading to better-calibrated models.

1. Bibliographic Information

• Title: Margin Matching Preference Optimization: Enhanced Model Alignment with Granular Feedback
• Authors: Kyuyoung Kim, Ah Jeong Seo, Hao Liu, Jinwoo Shin, Kimin Lee. The authors are affiliated with prominent academic institutions in AI research: KAIST (Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology) and UC Berkeley. Their affiliations suggest a strong background in machine learning theory and application.
• Journal/Conference: The paper is available on arXiv, which is a preprint server. This means the paper has been shared with the research community but has not yet undergone a formal peer-review process for publication in a conference or journal. The version analysed is $v2$, submitted in October 2024.
• Publication Year: 2024
• Abstract: The paper addresses a key limitation in current alignment techniques for Large Language Models (LLMs), such as Reinforcement Learning from Human Feedback (RLHF). These methods typically use binary preference labels (e.g., response A is better than B), which ignore the degree of preference. The authors introduce Margin Matching Preference Optimization (MMPO), an approach that incorporates these "quality margins" into the training process. MMPO defines soft target probabilities based on the quality difference between response pairs, using the Bradley-Terry model. This allows for more nuanced training. Experiments show that MMPO significantly outperforms standard methods on benchmarks like MT-bench and RewardBench. A 7B parameter model trained with MMPO achieves state-of-the-art results on RewardBench for its size. The analysis also reveals that MMPO is more robust to overfitting and produces better-calibrated models.
• Original Source Link:
  • arXiv Page: https://arxiv.org/abs/2410.03145
  • PDF Link: https://arxiv.org/pdf/2410.03145v2.pdf

2. Executive Summary

• Background & Motivation (Why):

  • Modern LLMs are aligned with human intent using feedback, most commonly through pairwise preferences where an annotator picks the better of two responses. Methods like Direct Preference Optimization (DPO) learn from a simple binary signal: "chosen" vs. "rejected".
  • The core problem is that this binary feedback is a drastic oversimplification. The quality difference between two responses can be massive (e.g., one is helpful, the other is nonsensical) or very subtle (e.g., minor stylistic differences). Current methods treat both cases identically, forcing the model to prefer the "chosen" response with maximum confidence.
  • This "hard-label" approach has two major drawbacks: 1) it loses valuable information about the degree of preference, and 2) it makes the model prone to overfitting, as it tries to achieve an infinite reward gap even for nearly identical pairs.
  • The paper introduces a fresh angle by leveraging granular feedback—such as Likert scale scores or AI-generated ratings—which is becoming increasingly common. The innovation is to use this information to create "soft" preference targets that reflect the actual quality margin.

• Main Contributions / Findings (What):

  1. A Novel Method (MMPO): The paper proposes Margin Matching Preference Optimization (MMPO), a simple yet powerful generalization of existing alignment methods. Instead of assuming the preferred response is always 100% better, MMPO calculates a per-sample target probability based on the quality difference (margin) between the two responses.
  2. Superior Performance on Generation Quality: MMPO-trained models consistently outperform baseline DPO models on MT-bench, a benchmark for chat quality. The improvement is particularly substantial on noisy human-feedback data, with gains of up to 11%.
  3. State-of-the-Art Reward Modeling: When evaluated on RewardBench for their ability to act as reward models, MMPO-trained models show superior performance. A 7B model trained with MMPO achieved state-of-the-art results on the leaderboard for its scale (as of June 2024).
  4. Enhanced Robustness and Calibration: The analysis shows that MMPO is more robust to overfitting compared to DPO. By using more realistic, finite preference targets, it prevents the model's reward estimates from diverging. This also results in better-calibrated models, whose confidence in a preference more accurately reflects its correctness.

3. Prerequisite Knowledge & Related Work

• Foundational Concepts:

  • Large Language Model (LLM): A type of AI model (e.g., GPT-4, Llama 3) trained on vast amounts of text data. Initially, they are "pre-trained" to acquire general knowledge and language skills. They are then "fine-tuned" for specific tasks or to follow human instructions.
  • Supervised Fine-Tuning (SFT): The first step in adapting a pre-trained LLM. The model is trained on a dataset of high-quality examples (e.g., prompt-response pairs) to learn a specific behavior, such as following instructions or engaging in dialogue.
  • Reinforcement Learning from Human Feedback (RLHF): A popular alignment technique. It involves three stages:
    1. Collect human preference data, where for a given prompt, humans choose the better of two model-generated responses.
    2. Train a reward model (RM) to predict which response a human would prefer. The RM learns to assign a higher score to the preferred response.
    3. Use reinforcement learning (e.g., PPO) to fine-tune the SFT model, using the RM's score as a reward signal. The goal is to generate responses that maximize this reward.
  • Bradley-Terry Model: A statistical model used in RLHF to represent preference probabilities. It states that the probability of preferring item $y_w$ over $y_l$ is a function of the difference in their underlying scores (rewards). This probability is typically modeled with the sigmoid function: $P(y_w \succ y_l) = \sigma(r(y_w) - r(y_l))$.
  • Direct Preference Optimization (DPO): A more recent and computationally simpler alternative to RLHF. DPO bypasses the need for an explicit reward model and RL. It uses a clever mathematical trick to show that the RLHF objective can be optimized directly on the preference data with a specific cross-entropy loss function. It directly adjusts the LLM's policy to increase the likelihood of preferred responses and decrease the likelihood of rejected ones.

• Previous Works:

  • The paper positions itself against methods that use binary feedback. This includes standard RLHF and DPO, which assume the target probability for the preferred response is 1.
  • It also contrasts with Kahneman-Tversky Optimization (KTO), which uses even simpler feedback (just whether a single response is desirable or not).
  • The problem of overfitting in DPO was noted by Identity Preference Optimization (IPO), which modifies the loss to be more robust. However, IPO still doesn't use per-sample margin information.
  • Conservative DPO (cDPO) introduced label smoothing—a technique where the hard target of 1 is softened by subtracting a small, uniform constant. This helps with robustness but treats all preference pairs equally, unlike MMPO, which uses a variable, data-driven soft target for each pair.
  • The development of Llama 2 used a fixed margin based on a 4-point rating scale to improve its reward model. MMPO generalizes this idea to use continuous, per-sample margins within a probabilistic framework.

• Technological Evolution: The field of LLM alignment has evolved from expensive SFT on curated data to feedback-based methods. RLHF was a breakthrough but is complex to implement. DPO simplified this process significantly, making alignment more accessible. This paper argues that as we move towards using AI for feedback (RLAIF), we get access to more granular data (e.g., scores from 1-10) than simple human A/B choices. The next logical step, which this paper takes, is to evolve from using simple binary feedback to leveraging this richer, more granular information for better alignment.

• Differentiation: MMPO's key innovation is its dynamic, per-sample soft target.

  • Unlike DPO, which uses a fixed, hard target (probability = 1).
  • Unlike cDPO, which uses a fixed, uniform soft target (e.g., probability = 0.9 for all pairs).
  • Unlike the Llama 2 approach, which used a few discrete, fixed margins. MMPO defines a unique target probability for every single preference pair based on its specific quality margin, allowing the model to learn the subtleties of the feedback data.

4. Methodology (Core Technology & Implementation)

• Principles: The core principle of MMPO is to "match" the model's predicted preference probability to a target probability that reflects the actual quality "margin" between a chosen response ($y_w$) and a rejected response ($y_l$). The intuition is illustrated in Figure 1:

  • Case 1 (Large quality gap): If $y_w$ is vastly superior to $y_l$, the model should be trained to strongly prefer it (target probability close to 1).

  • Case 2 (Small quality gap): If $y_w$ is only marginally better than $y_l$, the model should only weakly prefer it (target probability closer to 0.5). This prevents the model from wasting capacity trying to create a huge reward difference for pairs that are nearly indistinguishable in quality, which is a primary cause of overfitting.

    该图像是一个示意图，展示了在不同质量差异下二元标签与软标签的目标分布对比，体现了本文中基于质量差异的边距匹配偏好优化方法的核心思想。

• Steps & Procedures: The MMPO method modifies the standard DPO or reward modeling loss function. The process is as follows:

  1. Obtain Quality Margins: For each preference pair $(x, y_w, y_l)$ in the dataset, obtain a quality margin $m(y_w, y_l)$. This margin can come from:

     • AI Feedback: The difference in scores (e.g., 1-10) assigned by a powerful LLM judge like GPT-4.
     • Human Feedback: The difference in scores derived from human ratings (e.g., upvotes/downvotes on Reddit posts in the SHP dataset).

  2. Design Soft Target Probabilities: The margin is converted into a target preference probability using the Bradley-Terry model. This is the central formula of MMPO: $$p(y_w \succ y_l) = \sigma(\gamma m(y_w, y_l))$$ Here, $\gamma$ is a scaling parameter called the "rationality coefficient." It controls how sensitive the probability is to the margin. As shown in Figure 2, a larger $\gamma$ leads to more deterministic (closer to 0 or 1) probabilities. This parameter is tuned on a validation set.

  3. Optimize a Generalized Loss: Instead of the standard cross-entropy loss which assumes the target is 1, MMPO uses a generalized binary cross-entropy loss with these "soft" targets.

     该图像是图表，展示了布拉德利-特里模型中不同 gamma 值下的偏好概率$p(y>w|y)$随Margin变化的曲线。

• Mathematical Formulas & Key Details:

  1. Standard DPO Loss: The standard DPO loss aims to maximize the log-likelihood of the preference data, which simplifies to: $$\mathcal{L}_{\mathrm{DPO}} = - \mathbb{E}_{(x, y_w, y_l) \sim \mathcal{D}} \left[ \log \sigma \left( \beta \log \frac{\pi_{\theta}(y_w | x)}{\pi_{\mathrm{ref}}(y_w | x)} - \beta \log \frac{\pi_{\theta}(y_l | x)}{\pi_{\mathrm{ref}}(y_l | x)} \right) \right]$$

     • $\mathcal{L}_{\mathrm{DPO}}$: The DPO loss to be minimized.
     • $(x, y_w, y_l)$: A sample from the preference dataset $\mathcal{D}$, with prompt $x$, chosen response $y_w$, and rejected response $y_l$.
     • $\pi_{\theta}$: The language model policy being trained.
     • $\pi_{\mathrm{ref}}$: A fixed reference policy (usually the SFT model).
     • $\beta$: A temperature parameter that controls the deviation from the reference policy.
     • $\sigma(\cdot)$: The sigmoid function.
     • The term inside $\sigma$ is the difference in implicit rewards between $y_w$ and $y_l$. DPO implicitly assumes the target probability is 1 for every pair.

  2. MMPO Loss: MMPO replaces this with a generalized cross-entropy loss that uses the soft targets. For DPO, the MMPO loss is: $$\begin{array}{rl} & \mathcal{L}_{\mathrm{MMPO-DPO}} = - \mathbb{E}_{(y_w, y_l) \sim \mathcal{D}} \bigg[ \\ & \quad \sigma(\gamma m(y_w, y_l)) \log \sigma \Big( \beta \log \frac{\pi_{\theta}(y_w)}{\pi_{\mathrm{ref}}(y_w)} - \beta \log \frac{\pi_{\theta}(y_l)}{\pi_{\mathrm{ref}}(y_l)} \Big) \\ & \quad + (1 - \sigma(\gamma m(y_w, y_l))) \log \sigma \Big( \beta \log \frac{\pi_{\theta}(y_l)}{\pi_{\mathrm{ref}}(y_l)} - \beta \log \frac{\pi_{\theta}(y_w)}{\pi_{\mathrm{ref}}(y_w)} \Big) \bigg]. \end{array}$$

     • $m(y_w, y_l)$: The quality margin for the pair $(y_w, y_l)$.
     • $\gamma$: The rationality coefficient that scales the margin.
     • $\sigma(\gamma m(y_w, y_l))$: This is the soft target probability $p(y_w \succ y_l)$.
     • The first term is weighted by the soft target probability, and the second term is weighted by 1 minus the soft target probability. This is the standard form of a binary cross-entropy loss with soft labels. The same principle applies to training a reward model, where the implicit reward term is replaced by the explicit reward model's output difference $r_{\phi}(y_w) - r_{\phi}(y_l)$.

5. Experimental Setup

• Datasets:

  • SFT Dataset: UltraChat, a multi-turn dialogue dataset of 200k samples used to train strong open-source chat models like Zephyr. This creates a capable base model before alignment.
  • Preference Datasets:
    1. UltraFeedback: A dataset with 64k prompts where responses are generated by various LLMs and then rated by GPT-4 on a 1-10 scale. This is an example of AI Feedback (RLAIF). The margin $m$ is calculated from the difference in these scores.
    2. SHP (Stanford Human Preferences): A dataset of human preferences on Reddit posts. The quality score is derived from user upvotes and downvotes. This dataset represents Human Feedback (RLHF), which is often noisier than AI feedback. The authors use a 55k subset.

• Evaluation Metrics:

  1. MT-bench:
     • Conceptual Definition: A benchmark designed to evaluate a chatbot's multi-turn conversation abilities. It poses 160 questions across eight domains (e.g., writing, reasoning, STEM). The model generates two consecutive responses, and a powerful judge (GPT-4) rates the quality of each response on a 1-10 scale. The final score is the average score across all conversations. It measures overall conversational quality and instruction-following.
  2. RewardBench:
     • Conceptual Definition: A benchmark specifically designed to evaluate how well a model can function as a reward model. It measures the model's ability to correctly identify the preferred response from a pair across various domains (chat, safety, reasoning). The primary metric is accuracy.
     • Mathematical Formula: The paper reports weighted mean accuracy, which is the average accuracy across different subsets of the benchmark, weighted by their importance or size. For a single preference pair $(x, y_w, y_l)$, accuracy is 1 if the model's implicit reward for $y_w$ is higher than for $y_l$, and 0 otherwise.
  3. Expected Calibration Error (ECE):
     • Conceptual Definition: ECE measures the calibration of a model's predictions. A perfectly calibrated model's confidence in its predictions should match its actual accuracy. For example, if a model makes 100 predictions with 80% confidence, we expect it to be correct on 80 of them. ECE calculates the weighted average difference between confidence and accuracy across different confidence levels. A lower ECE means better calibration.
     • Mathematical Formula: $$\mathrm{ECE} = \sum_{g=1}^{G} \frac{|b_g|}{N} \left|\operatorname{acc}(b_g) - \operatorname{conf}(b_g)\right|$$
     • Symbol Explanation:
       • $N$: Total number of samples.
       • $G$: Number of bins to group predictions by confidence (e.g., 10 bins for 0-0.1, 0.1-0.2, etc.).
       • $b_g$: The set of samples whose predicted confidence falls into bin $g$.
       • $|b_g|$: The number of samples in bin $g$.
       • $\operatorname{acc}(b_g)$: The accuracy of the model on the samples in bin $b_g$ (fraction of correct predictions).
       • $\operatorname{conf}(b_g)$: The average confidence of the model on the samples in bin $b_g$.

• Baselines:

  • Gemma (2B, 7B) and Llama 3 (8B): State-of-the-art open-source LLMs used as the base models for experiments.
  • SFT: The base model after supervised fine-tuning on UltraChat, before preference alignment.
  • DPO: The primary baseline, representing the standard approach to reward-free alignment.
  • RM (Standard Reward Modeling): The baseline for the reward model experiments, trained with a standard binary cross-entropy loss.
  • Zephyr-β, Tulu-2-DPO, GPT-3.5-Turbo, GPT-4: Well-known models from the official leaderboards used for performance context.
  • IPO and cDPO: Other DPO variants used for specific ablation studies.

6. Results & Analysis

• Core Results:

  1. Direct Alignment Quality (MT-bench): The following is a transcription of Table 1, showing MT-bench scores.

  Model	Size	UF	SHP
  Gemma-SFT	2B	4.73	4.73
  Gemma-DPO	2B	6.09	5.13
  Gemma-MMPO	2B	6.10	5.57
  Gemma-SFT	7B	6.84	6.84
  Gemma-DPO	7B	7.40	6.49
  Gemma-MMPO	7B	7.53	7.23
  Gemma-IT	7B	6.26
  Zephyr—β	7B	7.34
  GPT-3.5-Turbo	-	7.94
  GPT-4	-	8.99

  • Analysis: MMPO consistently outperforms DPO across both model sizes and both feedback datasets (UF for AI feedback, SHP for human feedback). The most dramatic improvement is on the SHP dataset with the 7B model, where DPO actually performs worse than the SFT baseline (6.49 vs. 6.84), while MMPO shows a strong improvement (7.23). This suggests MMPO is particularly effective at handling the noisier, more ambiguous preferences found in human-generated data.

  • Figure 3 further breaks down the 7B model's performance on MT-bench, showing that Gemma-MMPO is competitive with GPT-3.5 in several domains and significantly better than the instruction-tuned Gemma-IT model.

    

    2. Capability as Reward Models (RewardBench): The following is a transcription of Table 2, showing RewardBench scores.

  Model	Size	Avg	Chat	Chat Hard	Safety	Reason	Prior Sets
  Gemma-DPO	2B	59.4	95.0	45.6	51.9	49.6	50.1
  Gemma-MMPO	2B	62.3	96.1	45.1	52.3	59.8	53.6
  Gemma-DPO	7B	73.0	96.6	59.9	73.7	69.0	58.3
  Gemma-MMPO	7B	75.6	97.5	62.9	71.1	75.0	67.7
  Zephyr-β	7B	70.7	95.3	62.6	54.1	89.6	52.2
  Zephyr-α	7B	73.6	91.6	63.2	70.0	89.6	53.5
  Tulu-2-DPO	70B	77.0	97.5	60.8	85.1	88.9	52.8

  • Analysis: MMPO models again outperform DPO models, achieving higher average accuracy on RewardBench. The performance gain is especially large on the Reason and Prior Sets subsets, which contain prompts that are different from the chat-focused fine-tuning data. This indicates that MMPO leads to models that generalize their preference understanding better to unseen domains. The 7B MMPO model achieves state-of-the-art performance for its size, even outperforming the much larger 70B Tulu-2-DPO on the Prior Sets subset.

  3. Calibration Analysis: Figure 4 shows reliability diagrams comparing the calibration of the 7B DPO and MMPO models.

  该图像是图表，展示了7B DPO模型（左）和7B MMPO模型（右）在RewardBench Prior Sets上的可靠性图，横轴为置信区间，纵轴为准确率。MMPO模型校准更好，具有更低的期望校准误差(ECE)。

  • Analysis: The DPO model is poorly calibrated, showing a large gap between confidence and accuracy. The MMPO model's curve is much closer to the diagonal "perfect calibration" line, resulting in a significantly lower ECE. This confirms that MMPO produces models whose confidence in a preference is a more reliable indicator of correctness.

  4. Robustness to Overfitting: Figure 5 demonstrates MMPO's robustness.

  该图像是图表，展示了论文中图5的内容。左图显示了UltraFeedback验证集中DPO与MMPO模型在不同训练轮次的隐含奖励差异，DPO在第3轮出现较大边距疑似过拟合；右图对应MT-bench性能，DPO性能下降而MMPO保持较好表现。

  • Analysis: The left plot shows that as training progresses, the implicit reward difference for the DPO model explodes in epoch 3. This is a classic sign of overfitting, where the model learns to be overconfident in its training data preferences. This overfitting directly correlates with a drop in MT-bench performance (right plot). In contrast, the MMPO model's reward margin remains stable, and its performance continues to improve.

  5. Reward Modeling with MMPO: Figure 6 shows that reward models trained with MMPO scale better in a best-of-n sampling scenario.

  该图像是图表，展示了图6中使用UltraFeedback训练的2B（左）和7B（右）模型的MT-bench评分，比较了带有MMPO与不带MMPO的奖励模型在best-of-n（n分别为16、64、256）条件下的表现。随着n增加，MMPO模型表现持续提升，而基线模型表现先增后降。

  • Analysis: As more candidate responses ($n$) are generated, the MMPO-trained reward model consistently picks better ones, leading to improved MT-bench scores. The baseline reward model, however, suffers from over-optimization; its performance peaks and then degrades at very high $n$, likely because it starts picking responses that exploit flaws in the reward function.

• Ablations / Parameter Sensitivity:

  1. Excluding Low-Confidence Pairs: The following is a transcription of Table 3, which tests if simply filtering out low-margin pairs can match MMPO's performance.

  UF	MMPO	DPO	DPO>0	DPO>1	DPO>2
  Data %	1.0	1.0	0.94	0.58	0.35
  MT-bench	7.53	7.40	6.93	7.03	7.07
  SHP	MMPO	DPO	DPO>1	DPO>2	DPO>5
  Data %	1.0	1.0	0.83	0.74	0.57
  MT-bench	7.23	6.49	6.76	7.04	7.08

  • Analysis: Filtering low-margin pairs does improve DPO's performance, especially on the noisy SHP data. However, it never reaches the performance of MMPO, which uses 100% of the data. This shows that simply discarding low-confidence data is suboptimal; these samples still contain a useful, albeit weak, signal that MMPO effectively utilizes.

  2. DPO with Label Smoothing (cDPO): The following is a transcription of Table 4.

  MMPO	DPO	cDPO (0.1)	cDPO (0.2)
  7.53	7.40	7.12	7.12

  • Analysis: Conservative DPO (cDPO), which applies a uniform smoothing parameter, performs worse than standard DPO and significantly worse than MMPO. This highlights that MMPO's per-sample, margin-aware soft targets are more effective than a naive, uniform smoothing approach.

7. Conclusion & Reflections

• Conclusion Summary: The paper successfully introduces Margin Matching Preference Optimization (MMPO), a simple and effective method for improving LLM alignment. By generalizing standard preference optimization to incorporate granular quality margins, MMPO creates more realistic, "soft" training targets. This single change leads to substantial improvements in generation quality (MT-bench), reward modeling capability (RewardBench), model calibration (lower ECE), and robustness to overfitting. The method's effectiveness is demonstrated across different model families (Gemma, Llama 3) and feedback types (AI and human), establishing it as a valuable and practical enhancement to the LLM alignment toolkit.

• Limitations & Future Work: The authors acknowledge two main limitations:

  1. Scale: The experiments were conducted on models up to the 8B parameter scale due to compute constraints. The effectiveness of MMPO on much larger models (e.g., 70B+ or foundational models) remains to be empirically verified, although results suggest the benefits may increase with scale.

  2. Dataset Diversity: The study was limited to two main preference datasets. Further analysis across a wider variety of feedback data (different tasks, annotator pools, and quality levels) would strengthen the conclusions.

     For future work, the paper proposes exploring methods to estimate quality margins when explicit scores are not available. Figure 7 suggests one such avenue: using semantic similarity between responses as a proxy for the quality margin, which is a promising direction for making MMPO more broadly applicable.

     该图像是图表，展示了UltraFeedback中响应对的相似度（基于all-mpnet-base-v2计算）与GPT-4评分差异之间的关系。横轴为实际边际差，纵轴为被选择而被拒绝的余弦相似度，含误差线，呈现负相关趋势。

• Personal Insights & Critique:

  • Strength in Simplicity: The primary strength of MMPO is its elegance and simplicity. It is not a complex new algorithm but a principled modification of the loss function that is easy to implement within existing frameworks like DPO. This makes it highly practical and likely to be adopted.
  • Dependency on Granular Data: The method's main prerequisite is the availability of granular feedback. While the paper shows this is common with AI annotators, it can be a bottleneck for purely human-annotated datasets where collecting fine-grained scores is more costly than simple pairwise choices. The proposed solution of using sentence similarity as a proxy (Figure 7) is clever but needs more rigorous validation. The negative correlation is clear but noisy, suggesting this proxy might not be a perfect substitute for true quality scores.
  • Hyperparameter Sensitivity: The method introduces a new hyperparameter, $\gamma$ (the rationality coefficient). The paper states it was tuned on a validation set, but a deeper analysis of its sensitivity would be valuable for practitioners. How does the optimal $\gamma$ vary across datasets with different score distributions or noise levels?
  • Generalizability of the Margin Concept: The paper focuses on a general "quality" margin. This concept is highly extensible. The margin could be a weighted combination of different factors, such as helpfulness, harmlessness, and factual accuracy. This would allow for more fine-grained control over the alignment process, for instance, by training the model to be extremely sensitive to differences in safety (large margin) but less sensitive to minor stylistic preferences (small margin). This flexibility is a powerful, underexplored aspect of the MMPO framework.