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1. Bibliographic Information

Title: Vista: A Generalizable Driving World Model with High Fidelity and Versatile Controllability
Authors: Shenyuan Gao, Jiazhi Yang, Li Chen, Kashyap Chitta, Yihang Qiu, Andreas Geiger, Jun Zhang, Hongyang Li
Affiliations: Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, OpenDriveLab at Shanghai AI Lab, University of Tübingen, Tübingen AI Center, University of Hong Kong
Journal/Conference: This paper is an arXiv preprint, a common way to disseminate research quickly in the fast-moving field of AI. While not yet peer-reviewed in a top-tier conference like CVPR or NeurIPS, its strong author affiliations and comprehensive results suggest it is of high quality.
Publication Year: 2024 (Version 5 submitted in May 2024)
Abstract: The paper introduces Vista, a world model for autonomous driving designed to overcome key limitations of existing models: poor generalization, low prediction fidelity, and limited action controllability. The authors propose several innovations: two novel loss functions to improve the prediction of moving objects and structural details, a latent replacement technique for coherent long-term video generation, and a unified interface for a wide range of action controls (from high-level goals to low-level maneuvers). Trained on a large-scale dataset, Vista demonstrates superior performance, outperforming leading video generators and driving world models on standard metrics. A key application is also demonstrated: using Vista itself as a generalizable reward function to evaluate driving actions without needing ground truth.
Original Source Link:
- arXiv: https://arxiv.org/abs/2405.17398v5
- PDF: http://arxiv.org/pdf/2405.17398v5
- Publication Status: Preprint

2. Executive Summary

Background & Motivation (Why): World models, which can predict future states of an environment based on actions, are critical for safe and generalizable autonomous driving. They allow an AI to "imagine" the consequences of its decisions. However, existing driving world models suffer from three major problems:
1. Poor Generalization: They are often trained on limited datasets, failing to perform well in new, unseen environments or geographical locations.
2. Low Fidelity: They typically generate videos at low resolutions and frame rates, losing critical details needed for realistic simulation (e.g., the exact outline of a moving car).
3. Inflexible Controllability: Most models only accept a single type of action command (like steering angle), making them incompatible with the diverse outputs of modern planning algorithms, which can range from high-level commands ("turn left") to detailed trajectories.
Main Contributions / Findings (What): The paper presents Vista, a driving world model designed to solve these issues. Its key contributions are:
1. A Generalizable and High-Fidelity Predictive Model: Vista generates realistic driving scenes at a high spatiotemporal resolution (576x1024 pixels at 10 Hz). This is achieved through:
  - Dynamic Prior Injection: A novel latent replacement method that conditions the model on the last three frames to ensure smooth and physically plausible long-term predictions.
  - Two Novel Losses: A Dynamics Enhancement Loss that focuses training on moving objects and a Structure Preservation Loss that uses Fourier analysis to maintain sharp details.
2. Versatile and Generalizable Action Controllability: Vista incorporates a unified control interface that accepts a wide variety of action formats:
  - High-level: command (e.g., "turn left"), goal point.
  - Low-level: trajectory, angle & speed. This controllability is learned efficiently and generalizes to unseen datasets in a zero-shot manner.
3. A Novel Generalizable Reward Function: For the first time, the authors demonstrate that the world model itself can be used to evaluate the quality of a driving action. By measuring the prediction uncertainty (variance) for a given action, Vista can assign a reward score without needing ground truth data, a significant step towards self-evaluation for autonomous systems.
4. State-of-the-Art Performance: Vista significantly outperforms previous driving world models (by 55% in FID and 27% in FVD on nuScenes) and is preferred over top general-purpose video generators in over 70% of human evaluations.

Foundational Concepts:
- World Model: An internal model that an intelligent agent (like a self-driving car) builds to understand and predict how its environment works. It answers the question: "If I take this action, what will happen next?" This allows for planning and reasoning without having to perform actions in the real world.
- Latent Diffusion Models (LDMs): A powerful class of generative models that create data (like images or videos) by starting with random noise and progressively refining it into a coherent sample. They operate in a compressed "latent" space for computational efficiency. Stable Video Diffusion (SVD) is a prominent LDM for video generation, which serves as the base for Vista.
- Autoregressive Rollout: A technique for generating long sequences (like a long video). The model predicts a short segment, then uses the end of that segment as the starting point to predict the next one, and so on, "rolling out" the prediction over time.
Previous Works & Differentiation:
- The paper contrasts Vista with previous driving world models like DriveGAN, DriveDreamer, Drive-WM, GenAD, and GAIA-1. The key limitations of these models are summarized in Figure 1. They are often restricted by:
  - Data Scale: Trained on hundreds of hours of data, compared to Vista's ~1740 hours.
  - Resolution & Frame Rate: Operate at significantly lower resolutions and frame rates, as visually depicted in Figure 1. For instance, GenAD operates at 256x448 and 2 Hz, while Vista operates at 576x1024 and 10 Hz.
  - Control Modes: Most support only one or two action types, whereas Vista supports four distinct modes.
- Image 3 provides a clear comparative overview, positioning Vista as superior in terms of resolution, frame rate, and control versatility.
  
  该图像是图1，一个比较图表，展示了不同驾驶世界模型（包括Vista）的性能参数和控制模式。图表上方详细列出了各模型的数据规模、帧率、分辨率以及支持的动作控制模式。下方则通过视觉示例直观地比较了不同模型的输出分辨率。其中，Vista以 $576 \times 1024$ 的高分辨率显著优于其他现有模型，并支持全部四种动作控制模式。
- Vista also differentiates itself from general-purpose video generators like SVD, Lumiere, and Emu Video. While these models produce high-quality videos, they are not designed as predictive models for specific domains like driving. They often fail to maintain consistency from a condition frame and struggle with complex, ego-centric driving dynamics. Vista is specifically tailored to be a predictive model that understands the physics and rules of driving.

4. Methodology (Core Technology & Implementation)

Vista's development is structured into a two-phase training pipeline, as shown in Figure 3.

$Figure 3: \[Left\]: Vista pipeline. In addition to the initial frame, Vista can absorb more priors about future dynamics via latent replacement. Its prediction can be controlled by different actions an…$ 该图像是图3，展示了Vista驾驶世界模型的流水线和训练过程。[左图]为Vista流水线，通过动态先验和初始帧，结合多模态动作控制（包括高层意图和低层机动），进行自回归推演以预测未来视频帧。它能通过潜在替换吸收未来动力学先验。[右图]为训练流程，分为两个阶段：第一阶段训练Vista生成视频，第二阶段冻结预训练权重，通过LoRA学习动作控制，将动作输入投影后影响视频输出。

4.1 Phase One: Learning High-Fidelity Future Prediction

This phase adapts the pre-trained SVD model into a specialized, high-fidelity predictive model for driving.

Basic Setup:
- The model is modified to be strictly predictive: the first frame of the generated video is forced to be the input condition image. This is crucial for autoregressive rollouts, as it ensures continuity between predicted clips.
- The model is trained on the large-scale OpenDV-YouTube dataset to learn generalizable driving dynamics.
Dynamic Prior Injection:
- Motivation: To predict a coherent future, the model needs to understand not just the current state (position), but also its recent motion (velocity and acceleration). The authors argue that three consecutive historical frames are sufficient to capture these three essential priors.
- Technique (Latent Replacement): Instead of concatenating extra frames as input channels (which can be inefficient), Vista directly replaces the noisy latent variables of the first few timesteps with the clean, encoded latent representations of the historical frames. The input latent $\hat{\mathbf{n}}$ $\hat{n}$ is constructed as: $\hat{\mathbf{n}} = \mathbf{m} \cdot \mathbf{z} + (1 - \mathbf{m}) \cdot \mathbf{n}$
  - $\mathbf{z}$ : The sequence of clean latent vectors encoded from the ground truth video frames.
  - $\mathbf{n}$ : The sequence of noisy latent vectors.
  - $\mathbf{m}$ : A binary mask where $m_i=1$ indicates a historical frame (a prior) and $m_i=0$ indicates a frame to be predicted.
- This approach is more flexible and effective for incorporating a variable number of condition frames. The standard diffusion loss is then applied only to the frames that need to be predicted: $\mathcal{L}_{\mathrm{diffusion}} = \mathbb{E}_{z, \sigma, \hat{n}} \left[ \sum_{i=1}^{K} (1 - m_i) \odot \| D_{\theta}(\hat{n}_i; \sigma) - z_i \|^2 \right]$
  - $D_{\theta}$ : The UNet denoiser model.
  - $z_i$ : The ground truth latent for the $i$ -th frame.
  - $\hat{n}_i$ : The input latent (either clean or noisy) for the $i$ -th frame.
Dynamics Enhancement Loss:
- Motivation: In driving videos, most of the scene (e.g., sky, distant buildings) is static, while the crucial information is in the small, dynamic regions (e.g., moving cars, pedestrians). A standard loss treats all pixels equally, leading to inefficient learning of important dynamics.
- Technique: This loss adaptively focuses on regions with high motion error.
  1. A dynamics-aware weight $w_i$ is calculated, which measures the squared difference between the predicted motion (predicted frame i - predicted frame i-1) and the ground truth motion (GT frame i - GT frame i-1). $w_i = \| (D_{\theta}(\hat{n}_i; \sigma) - D_{\theta}(\hat{n}_{i-1}; \sigma)) - (z_i - z_{i-1}) \|^2$
  2. This weight $w_i$ $w_{i}$ is used to re-weight the diffusion loss, effectively telling the model to "pay more attention" to pixels where its motion prediction is wrong. $\mathcal{L}_{\mathrm{dynamics}} = \mathbb{E}_{z, \sigma, \hat{n}} \left[ \sum_{i=2}^{K} \mathrm{sg}(w_i) \odot (1 - m_i) \odot \| D_{\theta}(\hat{n}_i; \sigma) - z_i \|^2 \right]$
    - $\mathrm{sg}(\cdot)$ is the stop-gradient operator, meaning the weights themselves do not receive gradients.
Structure Preservation Loss:
- Motivation: Standard video generation models often produce blurry or "unraveling" objects, especially at high resolutions during fast motion. This loss aims to preserve sharp structural details like edges and textures.
- Technique: This loss operates in the frequency domain.
  1. A 2D Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) is applied to both the predicted and ground truth latent vectors.
  2. A high-pass filter $\mathcal{H}$ is used to isolate the high-frequency components, which correspond to structural details.
  3. The Inverse FFT (IFFT) is applied to bring these components back to the spatial domain. This process is denoted by $\mathcal{F}(\cdot)$ . $z'_i = \mathcal{F}(z_i) = \mathrm{IFFT}(\mathcal{H} \odot \mathrm{FFT}(z_i))$
  4. The loss minimizes the difference between the high-frequency components of the prediction and the ground truth. $\mathcal{L}_{\mathrm{structure}} = \mathbb{E}_{z, \sigma, \hat{n}} \left[ \sum_{i=1}^{K} (1 - m_i) \odot \| \mathcal{F}(D_{\theta}(\hat{n}_i; \sigma)) - \mathcal{F}(z_i) \|^2 \right]$
Final Objective: The final loss for Phase One is a weighted sum of the three components: $\mathcal{L}_{\mathrm{final}} = \mathcal{L}_{\mathrm{diffusion}} + \lambda_1 \mathcal{L}_{\mathrm{dynamics}} + \lambda_2 \mathcal{L}_{\mathrm{structure}}$

4.2 Phase Two: Learning Versatile Action Controllability

This phase freezes the high-fidelity predictive model and efficiently teaches it to respond to various action commands.

Unified Conditioning of Versatile Actions:
- Vista supports four types of actions: Angle and Speed, Trajectory, Command, and Goal Point.
- All these heterogeneous actions are first converted into numerical sequences. They are then encoded using Fourier embeddings and fed into the UNet's cross-attention layers. This provides a unified interface to control the video generation process.
Efficient Learning Strategy:
- Problem: Fine-tuning the entire 1.6B parameter UNet for action control is computationally expensive and can degrade the pre-trained high-fidelity generation capability.
- Solution: A two-stage, parameter-efficient approach is used.
  1. Low-Resolution Training: Most of the training is done at a lower resolution (320x576) for faster throughput. To avoid damaging the pre-trained weights, the UNet is frozen, and only lightweight LoRA (Low-Rank Adaptation) adapters and new projection layers are trained.
  2. High-Resolution Fine-tuning: The model is then fine-tuned for a short period at the full resolution (576x1024) to adapt the learned controls to high-fidelity generation.
- Collaborative Training: Since the large OpenDV-YouTube dataset lacks action labels, while the smaller nuScenes dataset has them, a collaborative strategy is used. The model is trained on a mix of both datasets. For OpenDV-YouTube samples, the action condition is set to zero (unconditional), while for nuScenes samples, the ground truth action is provided. This allows Vista to learn controllable actions while retaining its generalization ability.

4.3 Generalizable Reward Function

Motivation: Traditional methods for evaluating driving actions either require ground truth (e.g., L2 error) or rely on external perception models trained on specific datasets, which limits generalization.
Technique: Vista uses its own internal uncertainty as a reward signal. The intuition is that a "good," plausible action will lead to confident, low-variance predictions, while a "bad," out-of-distribution action will cause the model to be uncertain, resulting in high-variance predictions.
1. For a given state (condition frames $c$ ) and a candidate action $a$ , the model generates $M$ different future predictions by starting from different random noise samples.
2. The conditional variance across these $M$ predictions is calculated.
3. The reward R(c, a) is defined as the exponential of the averaged negative variance. High variance leads to a low reward, and low variance leads to a high reward. $\mu' = \frac{1}{M} \sum_m D_{\theta}^{(m)}(\hat{n}; c, a)$ $R(c, a) = \exp \left[ \mathrm{avg} \left( - \frac{1}{M-1} \sum_m (D_{\theta}^{(m)}(\hat{n}; c, a) - \mu')^2 \right) \right]$
- This method is generalizable because it relies only on the world model itself, which has been trained on diverse data, and it requires no ground truth actions for evaluation.

5. Experimental Setup

Datasets:
- Training:
  - OpenDV-YouTube: A large-scale dataset of ~1735 hours of unlabeled driving videos used for learning generalizable dynamics in Phase 1.
  - nuScenes: A smaller but richly annotated dataset used in Phase 2 for learning action controllability.
- Evaluation:
  - nuScenes, Waymo Open Dataset, CODA, OpenDV-YouTube-val: These datasets are used for evaluation to test Vista's generalization across different geographies, sensor setups, and driving scenarios (including corner cases in CODA).
Evaluation Metrics:
1. Fréchet Inception Distance (FID):
  - Conceptual Definition: A metric to measure the quality and diversity of generated images. It calculates the distance between the feature distributions of real images and generated images. A lower FID score means the generated images are more similar to real ones. It primarily evaluates per-frame quality.
  - Mathematical Formula: $\mathrm{FID}(x, g) = \|\mu_x - \mu_g\|^2_2 + \mathrm{Tr}(\Sigma_x + \Sigma_g - 2(\Sigma_x \Sigma_g)^{1/2})$
  - Symbol Explanation:
    - x, g: Real and generated data distributions.
    - $\mu_x, \mu_g$ : Mean of the feature vectors (from an Inception network) for real and generated images.
    - $\Sigma_x, \Sigma_g$ : Covariance matrices of the feature vectors.
    - $\mathrm{Tr}(\cdot)$ : The trace of a matrix (sum of diagonal elements).
2. Fréchet Video Distance (FVD):
  - Conceptual Definition: An extension of FID for videos. It measures the distance between the distributions of spatiotemporal features extracted from real and generated videos. It evaluates both per-frame quality and temporal consistency (motion). A lower FVD is better.
  - Mathematical Formula: The formula is identical in form to FID, but the features are extracted from a video classification network (e.g., I3D).
  - Symbol Explanation: Same as FID, but $\mu$ and $\Sigma$ now represent the statistics of video features.
3. Trajectory Difference:
  - Conceptual Definition: A metric proposed in this paper to specifically measure action control consistency. It evaluates how well the generated video's motion matches the intended action.
  - Procedure:
    1. An Inverse Dynamics Model (IDM) is trained to predict the ego-vehicle's trajectory from a given video clip.
    2. Vista generates a video conditioned on a specific action (e.g., a ground truth trajectory).
    3. This generated video is fed into the IDM to get an estimated trajectory.
    4. The Trajectory Difference is the L2 distance between the ground truth trajectory and the IDM-estimated trajectory. A lower value indicates better control.
  - This process is visualized in Image 1.
    
    该图像是图13的示意图，展示了论文中用于评估Vista模型预测轨迹的IDM实验流程。它将历史帧和多模态控制指令输入到Vista模型以生成未来预测。这些预测通过逆动力学模型（Inverse Dynamics Model）输出预测轨迹，该轨迹随后与真实轨迹进行比较，计算轨迹差异以评估模型的准确性。该图直观地解释了论文中表3所提及的IDM实验。
4. Human Evaluation:
  - Protocol: Two-Alternative Forced Choice (2AFC). Participants are shown two videos side-by-side (one from Vista, one from a baseline) and asked to choose the better one based on two criteria: Visual Quality and Motion Rationality.
Baselines:
- Driving World Models: DriveGAN, DriveDreamer, WoVoGen, Drive-WM, GenAD. Results are taken from their respective papers.
- General-Purpose Video Generators: Lumiere, Emu Video, I2VGen-XL. These are state-of-the-art models trained on massive web datasets.

6. Results & Analysis

Core Results:

Prediction Fidelity (Automatic Evaluation): Table 2 shows that Vista significantly outperforms all previous driving world models on nuScenes. It achieves an FID of 6.9 and an FVD of 89.4, surpassing the previous best (GenAD) by 55% and 27% respectively.

(Manual transcription of Table 2)

Metric DriveGAN [102] DriveDreamer [125] WoVoGen [90] Drive-WM [127] GenAD [136] Vista (Ours)

FID ↓ 73.4 52.6 27.6 15.8 15.4 6.9

FVD ↓ 502.3 452.0 417.7 122.7 184.0 89.4
Generalization (Human Evaluation): Figure 7 shows that in head-to-head comparisons, human evaluators strongly prefer Vista over leading general-purpose video generators on both visual quality and motion rationality across four diverse datasets. This highlights Vista's superior understanding of driving-specific dynamics.

Action Controllability:

Table 3 shows that conditioning on actions (like trajectory or angle & speed) dramatically reduces the Trajectory Difference compared to action-free generation, bringing it closer to the ground truth. This effect is observed on both nuScenes (seen during control training) and Waymo (unseen).

(Manual transcription of Table 3)

Dataset	Condition	Average Trajectory Difference ↓
Dataset	Condition	with 1 prior	with 2 priors	with 3 priors
nuScenes	GT video	0.379	0.379	0.379
	action-free	3.785	2.597	1.820
	+ goal point	2.869	2.192	1.585
	+ command	3.129	2.403	1.593
	+ angle & speed	1.562	1.123	0.832
	+ trajectory	1.559	1.148	0.835
Waymo	GT video	0.893	0.893	0.893
	action-free	3.646	2.901	2.052
	+ command	3.160	2.561	1.902
	+ trajectory	1.187	1.147	1.140

Reward Modeling: Figure 10 (left plot) demonstrates the effectiveness of the proposed reward function. On the unseen Waymo dataset, as the L2 error of a perturbed trajectory increases (i.e., the action gets worse), the average reward assigned by Vista consistently decreases. The case study on the right shows an instance where the L2 metric is misleading, but Vista's reward correctly identifies the better action.

$Figure 10: \[Left\]: Average reward on Waymo with different L2 errors. \[Right\]: Case study. The relative contrast of our reward can properly assess the actions that the L2 error fails to judge.$ 该图像是图表10，展示了Waymo数据集上平均奖励与L2误差的关系及案例研究。左图显示，平均L2误差增加时，平均奖励呈下降趋势。右图的案例研究表明，尽管Action1的L2误差低于Action2（0.94 vs 1.36），但Action2获得了更高的奖励（0.90 vs 0.88）。这说明在某些情况下，奖励能更准确地评估行动，弥补L2误差判断的不足。

Ablations / Parameter Sensitivity:
- Dynamic Priors: Figure 11 and Table 3 both show a clear trend: using more historical frames as priors (from 1 to 3) leads to more consistent and accurate motion predictions. The Trajectory Difference decreases steadily as more priors are added.
  
  该图像是图11，展示了动态先验对Vista驾驶世界模型预测效果的影响。它比较了真实序列（ground truth）与分别使用1、2和3个动态先验生成的预测帧。随着动态先验数量的增加，模型对未来运动的预测，如白色车辆的移动和左侧广告牌，与真实情况更加一致且逼真。
- Auxiliary Supervisions: Figure 12 provides a compelling qualitative ablation. The Dynamics Enhancement Loss helps the model generate more realistic motion (e.g., the car in front moves instead of staying static). The Structure Preservation Loss results in much sharper and more stable object outlines, preventing the "unraveling" effect.
  
  $Figure 12: \[Left\]: Effect of dynamics enhancement loss. The model supervised by the dynamics enhancement loss generates more realistic dynamics. In the first example, instead of remaining static, the…$ 该图像是图12，展示了动力学增强损失和结构保持损失的效果。左侧显示，动力学增强损失使前景车辆移动更真实，且自车转向时树木能自然移动。右侧对比显示，结构保持损失能够使移动物体的轮廓更清晰、细节更丰富。
- Necessity of LoRA: Figure 16 from the appendix clearly shows that training the action control module without LoRA (i.e., only training the new projection layers) leads to severe visual artifacts, while using LoRA maintains high visual quality.
  
  该图像是图16，展示了LoRA适应的必要性。没有LoRA时，模型在执行“左转”和“右转”动作时生成了严重的视觉损坏，画面黑暗且缺乏细节。而采用LoRA后，模型能生成清晰、高保真的驾驶场景视频帧，凸显了LoRA对于提升生成图像质量和动作可控性的重要作用。
- Reward Estimation Sensitivity: Figure 14 in the appendix shows that increasing the number of denoising steps is more effective for improving the discriminative power of the reward function than increasing the ensemble size, given a fixed computational budget.
  
  该图像是图14，展示了奖励估计对超参数的敏感性。图中描绘了不同去噪步数（denoise step）和集成大小（ensemble size）下平均奖励与平均L2误差的关系。随着平均L2误差的增加，平均奖励普遍下降。增加去噪步数（例如从5到10）会显著影响奖励值，使其在相同L2误差下更低，但可能产生更具区分性的奖励。增加集成大小对奖励值的影响相对较小，有助于稳定估计。

7. Conclusion & Reflections

Conclusion Summary: The paper successfully introduces Vista, a driving world model that sets a new standard for generalization, fidelity, and controllability. By building upon a strong foundation (SVD) and introducing domain-specific innovations—namely, dynamic prior injection, novel dynamics and structure losses, and a versatile, efficiently-trained control mechanism—Vista achieves state-of-the-art results. Furthermore, the work pioneers the use of the world model's internal uncertainty as a generalizable reward function, opening up new avenues for action evaluation and model-based reinforcement learning in autonomous driving.
Limitations & Future Work (from the paper):
- Computational Cost: High-resolution video generation is inherently expensive. The authors suggest exploring faster sampling techniques or model distillation.
- Long-Horizon Degradation: Quality can still degrade in very long rollouts or during drastic view changes. More scalable architectures or refinement techniques could help.
- Control Failures: Action control is not perfect, especially for ambiguous high-level commands. Training on more diverse annotated data could improve robustness.
- Data Scale: While trained on a large dataset, there is still a vast amount of untapped driving data on the internet that could further enhance Vista's capabilities.
Personal Insights & Critique:
- Novelty and Impact: Vista represents a significant leap forward for driving world models. The move to high-resolution, high-framerate prediction is crucial for real-world utility. The two proposed losses are intuitive, well-motivated, and demonstrably effective, offering a valuable recipe for future work in video prediction. The most impactful contribution might be the generalizable reward function, which tackles a fundamental challenge in autonomous systems: how to evaluate actions in the open world without a predefined metric or ground truth.
- Practicality: The model's computational requirements are a major barrier to real-time deployment in a vehicle. However, its primary near-term value lies in offline applications: generating vast amounts of realistic training data, creating challenging simulation scenarios, and providing a powerful tool for policy evaluation and debugging.
- Open Questions: While the reward function shows a strong correlation with L2 error, its reliability in complex, multi-agent scenarios where L2 error is a poor proxy for safety (as shown in their case study) needs more extensive validation. Can it reliably distinguish between a safe, defensive swerve and a dangerous, aggressive one? This remains a critical area for future investigation. Overall, Vista is a landmark paper that pushes the boundaries of what is possible with generative world models in the complex domain of autonomous driving.

Metric	DriveGAN [102]	DriveDreamer [125]	WoVoGen [90]	Drive-WM [127]	GenAD [136]	Vista (Ours)
FID ↓	73.4	52.6	27.6	15.8	15.4	6.9
FVD ↓	502.3	452.0	417.7	122.7	184.0	89.4